Sample Characteristics and Country Level Indicators Influencing the Relationship Between Biculturalism and Adjustment: An Updated Meta-Analysis

A considerable number of studies have explored the relationship between biculturalism and different types of adjustment (psychological, sociocultural, health-related), showing that individuals who are highly engaged in both their heritage and the dominant culture demonstrate positive adjustment outcomes in various life domains. In the present study, we investigated the biculturalism-adjustment hypothesis in different samples from diverse cultural backgrounds, extending the meta-analysis of Nguyen and Benet-Martinez (2013). We conducted an updated meta-analysis that included 90 new studies. We assessed the magnitude of the relation between biculturalism and adjustment, and whether it remains stronger compared to the single cultural orientations (i.e., host, heritage). We further investigated the role of moderators for the association between biculturalism and adjustment: sample characteristics (e.g., gender, migration status, cultural group membership), the manner in which biculturalism is operationalized (unilinear, bilinear typological), and in what way the societal context in which people reside amplifies or dampens the effect size (i.e., degree to which integration policies are benevolent, socioeconomic status indexed by the HDI [Human Development Index], and global fit/distance between host and heritage cultural background). The findings confirmed that there is a positive relationship between biculturalism and adjustment which is stronger than the relationship between adjustment and heritage culture orientation. This relationship was moderated by the way in which biculturalism was assessed and the type of adjustment. Importantly, we did not see indications for the presence of publication bias. We formulated recommendations for future studies on biculturalism.