Search space for efficient electric vehicle system: Integration versus modularity, ownership versus service

What will be the dominant configurations in the electric vehicle (EV) market for efficient combinations of vehicle, battery, and charging systems? We develop a system dynamics model to explore the solution space formed by the relationships between these subsystems and their effects on overall system performance. Model development draws from operations management theory on resource efficiency, modularity, servitization, and sustainability. We find that an integrated vehicle-battery configuration constrains the efficient use of scarce battery materials. On the contrary, modular battery design enables Battery-as-a-Service solutions, which combine private residential charging for everyday short-distance driving and public fast charging for long-distance trips.